| dc.description |
Renin angiotensin system (RAS) alters various mechanisms related to muscle wasting. The RAS system consists of classical and non-classical pathways, which mostly function differently. Classical RAS pathway, operates through angiotensin II (AngII) and angiotensin type 1 receptors, is associated with muscle wasting and sarcopenia. On the other hand, the non-classical RAS pathway, which operates through angiotensin 1–7 and Mas receptor, is protective against sarcopenia. The classical RAS pathway might induce muscle wasting by variety of mechanisms. AngII reduces body weight, via reduction in food intake, possibly by decreasing hypothalamic expression of orexin and neuropeptide Y, insulin like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), signaling, AngII increases skeletal muscle proteolysis by forkhead box transcription factors (FOXO), caspase activation and muscle RING-finger protein-1 transcription. Furthermore, AngII infusion in skeletal muscle reduces phospho-Bad (Ser136) expression and induces apoptosis through increased cytochrome c release and DNA fragmentation. Additionally, Renin angiotensin system activation through AT1R and AngII stimulates tumor necrosis factor-α, and interleukin-6 which induces muscle wasting, Last but not least classical RAS pathway, induce oxidative stress, disturb mitochondrial energy metabolism, and muscle satellite cells which all lead to muscle wasting and decrease muscle regeneration. On the contrary, the non-classical RAS pathway functions oppositely to mitigate these mechanisms and protects against muscle wasting. In this review, we summarize the mechanisms of RAS-induced muscle wasting and putative implications for clinical practice. We also emphasize the areas of uncertainties and suggest potential research areas. Graphical abstract: Classical and non-classical renin angiotensin systems (RAS) play opposing roles in muscle wasting. Classical RAS system operates through Angiotensin (Ang)I/ACE/AngII)/Angiotensin Type 1 Receptor (AT1R) and induces muscle wasting by mechanisms including inducing anorexia, ubiquitin–proteasome system (UPS), apoptosis, inflammation, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, albuminuria, fibrosis (increasing transforming growth factor beta, connective tissue growth factor) and decrease insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) signaling, vitamin D and satellite cell function. Non-classical RAS system operates through Angiotensin1/ACE2/Ang (1–7)/Mas Receptor and have opposite actions to classical RAS system and protects against muscle wasting. (Figure presented.) |
|